Trafalgar Square – History in the Heart of London

Named after the Battle of Trafalgar - a British naval victory of the Napoleonic Wars -Trafalgar Square is undoubtedly one of the most iconic and history-rich places in London. Originally the northern area of the square was the site of the King's Mews and had been since the time of Edward I, while the southern end was the original Charing Cross, where Whitehall met the Strand from the City. When George IV, the Prince Regent, decided to move the King’s Mews to Buckingham Palace in the 1820s, the original site was demolished and commissioned for redevelopment. By 1845 the present architecture was completed.





The square itself consists of a large central area surrounded by roadways on three sides, and stairs leading to the National Gallery on the other. Nelson's Column stands in the centre of the square, surrounded by four bronze lions said to have been made with recycled metals from the cannons of the French fleet and fountains added in 1939. The column is topped by a statue of Lord Nelson, the admiral who commanded the British Fleet at Trafalgar.





At the corners of the square are four plinths. Three of them hold statues of George IV, Henry Havelock, and Sir Charles James Napier. The fourth plinth on the northwest corner was intended to hold a statue of William IV, but remained empty due to insufficient funds. Later, agreement could not be reached over which military hero or monarch to place there. Since 1999 it has featured temporary exhibitions of art by contemporary artists.





The square used to be particularly famous for its pigeons. However, the desirability of the birds’ presence was a matter of contention, due to their droppings tarnishing the beauty of the buildings and the flock of birds, estimated to be around 35,000 at its peak, were considered to be a health hazard. Therefore, the sale of bird seeds in the square was prohibited in 2000, and as of last month, bye-laws were secured sealing an outright ban on feeding birds in the square. The presence of pigeons is thus severely diminished.





Since its construction, Trafalgar Square has been a venue for political demonstrations. It was host to both the Black Monday and Bloody Sunday political rallies of 1886 and 1887, respectively. In modern times it has held significant political demonstrations against war and nuclear weapons, apartheid and the poll tax. A large vigil held was held at the square shortly after the terrorist bombings in London in July 2005.





Trafalgar Square is easily accessible from the Charing Cross, Embankment, Piccadilly Circus or Leicester Square tube stations, while the landmark is also extensively serviced by the London bus network. In addition there are several hotels in London near the square itself. Either way, no trip to London would be complete without visiting Trafalgar Square.

History of Garden Design - Fountains & Water Features From the Middle Ages to the Early Renaissance

The Middle Ages

After the fall of the Roman Empire, monasteries kept alive utilitarian gardening until the beginning of the Renaissance in the late fourteenth century. They led the way in the management of land and control of water, using wells, local rivers and streams for domestic use and for fishponds. Simple cisterns could be found in cloister gardens and in many monasteries a wall fountain was placed within the cloister or, later on, at the meeting point of traversing paths, perhaps as part of the religious symbolism of the cross or the Garden of Eden. One of the influences on fountain design came from early church decoration on fonts and holy water basins. The design of receiving basins, which took the overflow from a fountain, was inspired by the iconography and numerical significance of the number of sides of a font. Six was important in the writings of St Augustine, as it was associated with the sixth day of the Passion, the day of Crucifixion, which St Augustine took as a symbol of the destruction of the body of sin. Octagonal basins also had their origins in Christian doctrine, where eight sides represented the eighth day, signifying the resurrection of Christ, which became the first day or the beginning of another world for the newly baptized. In the Middle Ages the public display of notable religious water features such as carved fonts and water stoops was to be found only in major church buildings. Decoration on church fonts often adopted Bible stories associated with water such as the baptisms of Christ and John the Baptist, and stories of Moses. Fonts were one of the most highly decorated pieces of church furniture. In the Middle Ages fonts where adorned with powerful religious symbolism such as scenes showing Adam and Even in the Garden of Eden. Garden fountains where often used for bathing and represented an earthly paradise and a source for spiritual rejuvenation. There are few civic fountains remaining of this period yet there are several located in Viterbo and the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia Italy. The Viterbo Fountain of Santa Faustina has minimal decoration with Four Lion fountains. The Lion has symbolized nobility bravery and strength for many different cultures over thousands of years throughout Europe.

Early Renaissance

During the late 1400s there was a cultural shift towards an appreciation of the finer aspects of art and literature. Now art was to be appreciated purely for its own sake. In Italy the evolution in philosophical thinking begun by Marsilio Ficino made efforts to reconcile paganism with religion and this together with the growing interest in antique remains allowed pagan images to be considered acceptable for contemporary designs. Small bronze pagan figures were particularly popular and were much prized as collectors' items. They could be admired, discussed and handled with appreciation as much for their craftsmanship as for their subject matter. Similar designs were ideal for fountain figures. Until now most fountains, even those with figures, were set against a wall where a reservoir was concealed. The small bronze wall fountain figure thought to be by Donatello called Winged Boy with a Fantastic Fish, dating from about 1435-40, may be the link between wall-mounted and freestanding bronze fountains. The winged boy or putto is modeled almost in the round. He stands with his weight on his right leg to balance the large fish that he holds across his shoulders as he glances down to the left. He steadies the fish with his left hand and holds his other out in a clenched fist facing downwards. A neat hollow between the fingers of his right hand suggests that this cavity once held an object, possibly a small water wheel fixed on to a rod that whirled round under the force of water sprayed upwards by the little boy. As water filled the figure it also ran from the mouth of the fish. It is a fountain of mirth following the traditional belief that little urinating boys brought good luck. Donatello had carved many such small figures during his career, borrowing examples from antique putti on sarcophagi in the vicinity of Florence. One, on a sarcophagus in the Campo Santo in Pisa, shows a fruit and wine harvest gathered by putti with one infant lifting his shirt to urinate. So important were antique objects that Brunelleschi, the friend of Donatello, was reported to have thought nothing of walking 80 km/50 miles to see an antique vessel in Cortona when told about it.

One of the problems facing Renaissance artists who were interested in free-standing bronze sculpture for fountain design was how to resolve the all round viewpoints that such a figure required. Donatello produced probably the first sculpture in this style around 1430, the bronze statue of David, now in the Bargello in Florence, using the lost wax method. Because there was so little water for fountain display, artists had to consider the impact of the fountain when it was not working. The architectural lines of Renaissance gardens could be maintained in all seasons by using shaped evergreen planting and architectural features; fountains needed to be equally interesting at all times. Other problems in fountain production at this time included the need for a mechanism to vary the speed of water flow and the difficulty of putting designs into practice.

Because pagan subjects such as the Boy with a Dolphin were now acceptable in art, humanist patrons who wished to keep up appearances of Christian belief could do so even while decorating their gardens with pagan images. The book Hypnerotomachia Poliphili by a Venetian monk, Francesco Colonna, was published in 1499. It follows the steps of the hero, Poliphilo, in a dream sequence that begins by a stream and continues through the magnificent gardens of an imaginary world. Twelve fountains are described in detail, each acting as a stage setting for the unfolding story. Giochi d'acqua (Water Games) and table fountains are described but there is little technological detail. The timely rediscovery of grotesque decoration (so called because it was found in grottoes) in the Domus Aurea (Golden House of Nero) in Rome in the 1480s offered artists the opportunity to reflect this style in their work. This can be seen in the woodcut illustrations in Hypnerotomachia Poliphili.

Fountains and water features in private residences were a celebration of a person or family's wealth and prosperity. In urban areas they combined religious and civic themes, which summarized the town's revival and were seen as a crowing achievement for all to enjoy.

Short History of Technology

This age roughly lasted from 3300 BC to 1200 BC. It was the time when civilization started to coalesce around the Fertile Crescent and spread to Asia, Europe and Africa. The Bronze Age got its name because of when metals such as copper and tin which were used for making tools and weapons. Some of the advanced technologies of that time included agricultural innovations, chariot, use of salt, construction of permanent settlements and further domestication of animals.

The Iron Age
The Iron Age dates from 1200 BC to 500 BC and was the start of Roman Empire. The use of iron became very popular during this time and many people migrated to the farther reaches of continents including Europe. Technological advancements included glass, sundial, architecture, education, ships and advances in trade.

Age of Ancient Civilizations
This age was from around 500 BC with the start of the Roman Empire to about 500 AD when it fell. Many scholars consider it as the Golden Age as there were plenty of technological innovation occurring. Some of the technological advancements included city planning, education, sanitation, paper, math, architecture, bridges, magnetic compass, religion, aqueducts, road building, law and government, art, concrete, philosophy and more.

The Middle Ages
This age was from 500 AD to about 1500 in Europe. It began to grow in all areas of society that ushered in the Renaissance period. Several technological advancements during this period included the windmill, mechanical clock, architecture, military, spectacles and innovations in agriculture.

Muslim Agricultural Revolution
The Islamic world located predominantly in the Middle East revolutionized during the 8th century. It globalized a variety of agriculture techniques and crops. Some technological innovation of this time included the fountain pen, coffee, quartz glass, hard soap, shampoo, and celestial globe, innovations in math, nitric acid and incendiary devices.

The Renaissance Period
The beginning of Renaissance period marked from the period of the 14th century to the 16th century. Some of the major innovations during this time period occurred in education. Many schools and universities were developed and other disciples like architecture, medicine and philosophy grew.

Age of Exploration
This time period lasted from the 1400's to 1600's. When trade became a great means of wealth countries in Europe, this was the start of the Age of Exploration. It dominated technology and innovation mainly shipping, navigation and cartography.

The Industrial Revolution
It was the time of great innovation because of energy and steam engine. This happened mostly in Britain in the late 18th and 19th centuries. With the Industrial Revolution came the transportation revolution, this made transportation much easier people.

The 19th and 20th Centuries
Enormous innovations in technology have occurred during the last two centuries. There are so many innovations which make up a long list. However it is important to note that these innovations were because of the previous discoveries. The enormous innovations that have occurred over the last 200 years included television, radio, telephone, automobile, computer, internet, medicine, airplane, photography, nuclear power, spacecraft and much more.

Modern World
Today, the society has been vastly changed due to innovations and enhancements from technology. It took centuries in the past for the society to be what it is today. Technology has an enormous impact on the society. Still technology has long way to go ahead.

Rome Hotels Are Truly Depicting the Grand Roman History

Rome attracts tourists and visitors from a cross-section of society. It has something to offer for all ages. The attractions are varied and multitude such as piazzas, churches, ruins and architectural masterpieces. Rome has rightly earned the name of 'Eternal City' for its magnetism. Rome is an art lover's delight. The sounds and music of Rome reverberate from dawn into the lasting hours of the night. The bustling streets lined with boutiques and shops are a craze amongst the people out for a gay time. The attractions of the city are classy as well as traditional which add a certain mystique charm to the city. The monuments of Rome are gigantic reminders of its importance as one of the greatest centers of Western Civilization whence it was once said that all roads lead to Rome.

One of the chief attractions the tourists can indulge themselves in is the 'Circus Maximus', which is an elongated oval complete with a 250,000 seat arena for gladiator style action. It is next in size to "The Colosseum". The Colosseum even today remains one of the city's greatest architectural legacies. This elliptical structure with a seating capacity of 50,000 was founded in A.D. 80 wherein bloody combats between gladiators and wild beasts were witnessed. The Golden House of Nero made on some 200 acres of land remains one of history's most opulent palaces. One of the ancient Roman buildings which still stand intact today is the Pantheon which was built in 27 B.C. The building rests in a cylinder which measures 142 feet wide and 142 feet high. It is believed that Michelangelo first studied this once gilded dome before beginning his venture of designing the St. Peter's cupola. The tourists' fond of architecture will be amazed by the sheer width of the walls which are 25 feet thick with the weight of each bronze door weighing 20 tons.

The Palazzo Barberini National Gallery is rated as one of the finest baroque palaces whose beautiful collection of bronze urns complete with engravings is spectacular. The travelers who love to stroll around for some relaxation time will find a visit to Palatine Hill unearthed from the 9th century B.C. an excellent place to wander around on foot. An attraction worth visiting is the 'Trevi Fountain'. This beautiful oasis located on Via del Tritone features mythical sea creatures and lovely cascading waters. The films made on the site have made it one of the best known wishing wells in the world. According to legend, one is assured of a return journey to Rome when one tosses a coin into the fountain.

The St. Peter's Basilica whose foundation dates to the year AD 319 is reportedly near to where the Circus of Nero was in ancient times. The Basilica is a tribute to five of Italy's greatest Renaissance artists (Bramante, Raphael, Peruzzi, Sangallo the younger and Michelangelo) who died while toiling away on the new St. Peter's. The hotels in Rome are suitable to a cross section of travelers with the cheap hotels in Rome catering to the budget travelers. Rome hotels are well situated and provide the finest of facilities and amenities required by the modern day traveler to ensure their comfortably pleasant stay in ambient surroundings.